This research aimed to explore whether a cognitive process based on gaze patterns and an affective process based on perceived competence with the task, contribute to the effects of errorless motor learning. We hypothesized that changes in movement performance during (i) the learning phase and (ii) from pre-test to post-test would be explained by perceived competence and gaze patterns.
This is an experimental study involving young adults (n = 42) who were allocated to either an errorless or control condition to practice an overhand throwing task. Throwing performance, perceived competence, and gaze heat maps were measured during practice (learning), and at pre-test and post-test (including transfer and retention). Manipulation check was performed by comparing the learning and test performances of the errorless and control conditions while accounting for verbal and visuo-spatial working memory as covariates.
There was a main effect of condition on the learning (F(38,1)=12.34, p0.001, ƞ2=0.90) and test (F(38,1)=4.49, p=0.04, ƞ2=0.11) phases, where those in the errorless learning condition were at an advantage. During the learning phase, a nearly significant interaction with gaze pattern (F(109,3)=2.54, p=0.06, ƞ2=0.07) suggests that a cognitive process could possibly influence learning; the interaction with perceived competence was not significant. During the test phase, a significant interaction with perceived competence (F(52,1.5)=3.59, p=0.03, ƞ2=0.01) that suggests an affective process influences the outcomes; the interaction with gaze pattern was not significant.
The manipulation check confirms that an errorless motor learning strategy is advantageous for learners during practice and in the subsequent outcomes. It appears that a cognitive process represented by visual focus may play a role during errorless practice. On the other hand, an affective process represented by perceived competence contributes to the improvements in movement performance following errorless practice.
The findings contribute to the evidence supporting the benefits associated with errorless motor learning. We may be able to enhance the benefits of this strategy for young adults by considering cognitive and affective factors. It may be important to direct the learners’ visual focus when practicing a movement task, and to provide positive feedback that supports the learners’ perceived competence to enhance outcomes. Further research is needed to address the current study limitations (i.e., short practice period, small sample size) and explore other indicators of cognitive and affective processes (e.g., neuroimaging). Moreover, subsequent research is recommended to further examine these processes in children, older adults, and individuals with impairment.
gaze
perceived competence
